Cooperation and Altruism: Beyond Survival of the Fittest - Episode Hero Image

Cooperation and Altruism: Beyond Survival of the Fittest

Radiolab · · Listen to Original Episode →
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TL;DR

  • The conventional view of evolution through competition is incomplete, as genuine cooperation and altruism may also be fundamental sculpting forces, suggesting a more nuanced understanding of natural selection beyond mere survival of the fittest.
  • George Price's mathematical formulation of altruism demonstrated that seemingly selfless acts could be explained by gene-level self-interest, prompting him to personally test this by living a life of radical altruism to disprove his own findings.
  • The "Tit for Tat" strategy, a simple two-line computer program, emerged as the most successful in repeated Prisoner's Dilemma tournaments, highlighting the effectiveness of being nice, retaliating once, and then forgiving.
  • Real-world examples, like the spontaneous Christmas truce in World War I, illustrate how "Tit for Tat" dynamics can emerge between adversaries, demonstrating cooperation even in extreme conflict, though susceptible to escalation.
  • "Generous Tit for Tat," which includes a small percentage of non-retaliation, can prevent destructive cycles of violence and foster sustained cooperation, suggesting that a touch of forgiveness is crucial for long-term stability.
  • The Carnegie Hero Fund's extensive data reveals that acts of extraordinary civilian heroism, often involving voluntary risk to save others, are surprisingly common, suggesting that people are predisposed to look out for strangers.
  • The impulse to act heroically, even without conscious calculation, appears to be deeply ingrained, with some individuals feeling "chosen" or recalling past near-death experiences as catalysts for their selfless actions.

Deep Dive

The Radiolab episode "The Good Show" explores the evolutionary and practical underpinnings of altruism and cooperation, challenging the notion that life is solely driven by ruthless competition. It posits that seemingly selfless acts may have a basis in evolutionary strategy, and that cooperative behaviors can emerge and persist even in competitive environments, suggesting a fundamental logic of kindness woven into the fabric of existence.

The episode delves into the apparent paradox of altruism within Darwinian evolution, where survival and reproduction are paramount. It highlights how seemingly self-sacrificial behaviors, like those observed in amoebas forming a stalk to help others disperse, or the instinct to protect kin, can be understood through the lens of "kin selection" and "inclusive fitness." This concept, mathematically formalized by George Price, suggests that individuals may act altruistically if the act promotes the survival of genes they share with others, effectively ensuring their genetic legacy. However, Price's own attempt to prove true selflessness through radical personal altruism led to his tragic end, underscoring the complex and often devastating personal implications of grappling with these ideas.

The narrative then shifts to observable human heroism, examining cases recognized by the Carnegie Hero Fund. These instances, like Laura Shrake saving a woman from a bull or William Pennell rescuing teenagers from a burning car, reveal individuals acting instinctively to risk their lives for strangers, often with no clear calculation of personal benefit. This raises the question of what internal mechanisms drive such extraordinary actions. While the first two examples offer little rationalization beyond "I had to do something," the third, Wesley Autry saving a man on subway tracks, introduces a concept of being "chosen" or spared for a purpose, linking his heroic act to a near-death experience years prior.

Finally, the episode explores Robert Axelrod's groundbreaking computer tournaments on the Prisoner's Dilemma. The winning strategy, "Tit for Tat," which cooperates initially but retaliates immediately to defection and then returns to cooperation, demonstrates how a simple, forgiving, yet retaliatory approach can foster cooperation even in a world of self-interested actors. The success of "Tit for Tat" in Axelrod's evolutionary simulations, where successful strategies reproduced, suggests that cooperation is not just a human anomaly but a robust evolutionary strategy. Furthermore, the historical example of the Christmas Truce during World War I illustrates how this "Tit for Tat" logic can manifest in real-world conflict, with periods of reciprocal non-aggression emerging. The episode concludes by suggesting a modification to "Tit for Tat"--"generous Tit for Tat"--which incorporates a degree of forgiveness, arguing that this blend of reciprocity and kindness might be the most effective strategy for sustained cooperation, hinting that while individual choice is crucial, the underlying logic for cooperation is deeply embedded in complex systems.

Action Items

  • Audit evolutionary theories: Analyze the "selfish gene" perspective against instances of cooperation and altruism to identify potential biases or limitations in current models.
  • Design simulation: Create a computer simulation modeling "generous tit for tat" to test its resilience and effectiveness against various "defecting" strategies over 200 iterations.
  • Evaluate "generous tit for tat": Apply the principles of "generous tit for tat" (cooperate, retaliate, but forgive) to analyze historical or current interpersonal conflicts to identify opportunities for de-escalation.
  • Document heroic acts: Systematically collect and categorize documented instances of civilian heroism, noting common environmental factors or decision-making processes that enabled extraordinary risk-taking.

Related Episodes

Key Quotes

"Richard Dawkins they like him don't make it so easy for him I decided to begin this is a real problem for a lot of people by quoting him to him um you write I don't know if it's in this book or some other the total amount of suffering per year in the natural world is beyond all decent contemplation during the minute it takes me to compose this sentence thousands of animals are being eaten alive others are running for their lives whimpering with fear others are slowly being devoured from within by rasping parasites thousands of all kinds are dying of starvation thirst disease it must be so if there is ever a time of plenty this very fact will automatically lead to an increase in population until the natural state of starvation and misery is restored."

This quote highlights the inherent suffering within the natural world, as described by Richard Dawkins, and suggests that this suffering is a fundamental aspect of evolution. The author uses this to set up the central question of the episode: if nature is so cruel, how can we account for acts of kindness and self-sacrifice?

"So the sheer number of deaths that lie behind the the sculpting of these beautiful creatures is horrifying and at the same time it's got a kind of savage beauty wow um why are you blaming this exactly well because I was sitting there thinking I know that cheetahs chase and eat antelopes but wasn't there a nice cheetah once that went over to the antelope and said hi have a sandwich together and that maybe something about the cheetah and the had something to do with an act of kindness I can't imagine so you're thinking that maybe it's not just meanness that can sculpt but maybe niceness can sculpt too exactly niceness as a as a scalp niceness is a scalp ooh I want to listen to that show wait a second we are that show we should do it then let's do it today on radiolab goodness kindness selflessness altruism if the world is so cruel how do you account for it yeah how should we think about it and when you do see generosity how do you know it's really generous"

The author uses the example of predator-prey relationships, like cheetahs and antelopes, to illustrate the brutal efficiency of natural selection. This quote then pivots to question whether "niceness" or kindness, rather than just meanness, could also be a sculpting force in evolution, introducing the core theme of the episode.

"So imagine that two bank robbers are hanging out across the street from the first national bank and uh the police pick them up they've received a tip that these two guys are about to rob the bank got it yep So the cops take these two guys back to the station do the whole law and order thing put them in different rooms and they walk into each one let's call them lucky and joe and they say to lucky we have enough to make sure that you go away for a six month sentence but this is not really what the cops want they want a longer sentence for one of these guys so they make lucky an offer if you lucky rat out joe and joe doesn't say anything you will go free and joe will go to jail for 10 years if the reverse happens meaning if you say nothing and joe rats you out you're going to jail for 10 years and he's going to walk free if you both end up ratting on each other you both get five five years whereas if you both keep your mouth shut you're each going to jail for six months for loitering"

This quote explains the classic Prisoner's Dilemma, a thought experiment used to explore cooperation and defection. The author details the scenario where two individuals, unable to communicate, must choose between betraying the other for a potential greater reward or cooperating for a lesser, but guaranteed, outcome.

"So every program will play every other program 200 times there will be points in each round and then axelrod will total the scores and see what actually worked by which he means in the long run even if you lose some rounds here and there one of these strategies is going to beat all the others meaning it'll let you survive maybe even prosper that's the game that's right"

This quote describes Robert Axelrod's computer tournament designed to find the most successful strategy in repeated Prisoner's Dilemma games. The author explains that the goal was to determine which strategy, over many interactions, would lead to survival and prosperity, even if it experienced short-term losses.

"The program that won it's really two lines of code two lines of code yeah it's got a simple name it's it's called tit for tat first line of code be nice nice nice yeah nice nice is a technical word in this game nice means I never am nasty first and after that second line of code it just does what the other player did on the previous move oh so if the other player has just cooperated it'll cooperate and if the other player has just defected it'll defect it retaliates on the next move couldn't be clearer on the other hand it only retaliates that one time I mean unless provoked further it does its retaliation and now bygones are bygones and that's it"

The author reveals the winning strategy of Axelrod's tournament: "Tit for Tat." This quote breaks down the two simple rules of the program: always be nice first, and then mirror the opponent's previous move, highlighting its retaliatory yet forgiving nature.

"So you might say in evolutionary terms this program is the fittest so actually axelrod played an evolutionary version of his tournament that is he had these programs after they played their tournament get a chance to reproduce copies of themselves according to how well they did you mean the winners would get to have more babies yeah and then would the babies play each other yeah he ran them again I mean he ran them for many generations and so like suppose you have a world of lucifers and there are a few tit for tat players out there can they thrive can cooperation emerge in this horribly hostile world oh what an interesting question"

This quote explains how Axelrod extended his tournament into an evolutionary simulation, where successful strategies reproduced. The author poses the question of whether cooperation, embodied by "Tit for Tat," could emerge and thrive even in a world initially dominated by uncooperative strategies ("Lucifers").

Resources

External Resources

Books

  • "The Price of Altruism" by Orin Harman - Mentioned as a source of information about George Price.

Articles & Papers

  • "The Live and Let Live System in World War One" (Journal) - Discussed as an example of reciprocal cooperation in a real-world conflict.

People

  • Alice Wong - Featured writer and activist who discussed a valve attached to her tracheotomy tube.
  • Andrew Carnegie - Established the Carnegie Hero Fund Commission in 1904.
  • Carl Zimmer - Journalist who writes about evolution and explained a thought experiment about altruism.
  • George Price - Mathematician who developed an equation for the evolution of altruism and embarked on a program of radical altruism.
  • Jared Bartman - Designed thank you gifts for Radiolab donors.
  • John Maynard Smith - Biologist to whom George Price wrote letters.
  • Lulu Miller - Host of Radiolab.
  • Latif Nasser - Host of Radiolab.
  • Orin Harman - Author of "The Price of Altruism."
  • Robert Axelrod - Professor who conducted a computer tournament on the Prisoner's Dilemma.
  • Robert Krulwich - Host of Radiolab.
  • Richard Dawkins - Quoted regarding the suffering in the natural world.
  • Stanley Wintrell - Expert in World War I who discussed the "live and let live" system.
  • Steve Strogatz - Cornell mathematician who discussed the Prisoner's Dilemma.
  • Sylvia - Young artist who met George Price in London.
  • Walter Ritkowski - Executive Director and Secretary of the Carnegie Hero Fund Commission.
  • Wesley James Autry - Construction worker who saved a man from subway tracks.
  • William David Pennell - Recipient of the Carnegie Medal for rescuing teenagers from a burning car.

Organizations & Institutions

  • AT&T - Sponsor of Radiolab, emphasizing the power of voice.
  • Bell Labs - Where George Price worked on transistor research.
  • Carnegie Hero Fund Commission - Recognizes civilian heroism with the Carnegie Medal and financial grants.
  • Ford School of Public Policy - Part of the University of Michigan where Robert Axelrod is a professor.
  • John Templeton Foundation - Provides leadership support for Radiolab's science programming.
  • National Football League (NFL) - Mentioned in the context of sports analytics.
  • New England Patriots - Mentioned as an example team for performance analysis.
  • Pro Football Focus (PFF) - Data source for player grading.
  • Radiolab - Podcast that produced the episode.
  • Simons Foundation - Provides leadership support for Radiolab's science programming.
  • The Lab - Membership program for Radiolab.
  • University College of the University of London - Where George Price presented his equation.
  • WNYC - Radiolab's station, facing cuts to public media funding.

Websites & Online Resources

  • BetterHelp - Online therapy service offering a discount to Radiolab listeners.
  • Offline (Podcast) - Hosted by John Favreau, discussing forces shaping our lives.
  • Radiolab.org - The online home for Radiolab, used for donations and subscriptions.
  • Radiolab.org/donate - Website for making year-end donations to Radiolab.
  • Radiolab.org/newsletter - Sign-up for the Radiolab newsletter.
  • Sponsorship.wnyc.org - Website for learning about WNYC programming sponsorship.

Other Resources

  • Prisoner's Dilemma - A famous thought experiment illustrating strategic decision-making in situations of conflict and cooperation.
  • Tit for Tat - A strategy in the Prisoner's Dilemma characterized by initial cooperation followed by retaliation only when provoked.
  • Generous Tit for Tat - A modification of the Tit for Tat strategy that includes a small percentage of non-retaliation to stop echoes of violence.

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